Cameron, L., & Thorsborne, M. (2001).
[pdf] In H. Strang & J. Braithwaite (Eds.), Restorative
justice and civil society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
A practitioner’s view of the impact of
Community Conferencing in Queensland Schools
Halstead, S. (1999).[pdf] Journal of Correctional Discipline, 2003.
This article shows how restorative
justice techniques can be used with students in correctional and
alternative education settings. The simple principles of restorative
justice are outlined and their suitability for offenders is
illustrated through actual prison incidents that have been dealt with
using these principles. A protocol is suggested for teachers and
administrators who might consider adopting this approach.
McCold, P., & Wachtel, T. (2003, 10-15th August).
[html] Paper presented at the X111 World
Congress of Criminology, Rio de Janeiro.
In this paper, we propose a conceptual theory
of restorative justice so that social scientists may test these
theoretical concepts and their validity in explaining and predicting
the effects of restorative justice practices. The foundational
postulate of restorative justice is that crime harms people and
relationships and that justice requires the healing of the harm as
much as possible. Out of this basic premise arise key questions: who
is harmed, what are their needs and how can those needs be met?
SaferSanerSchools, a program of the
International Institute for Restorative Practices (IIRP), was
developed in response to a perceived crisis in American education and
in society as a whole. Said Ted Wachtel, IIRP president, “Rising
truancy and dropout rates, increasing disciplinary problems, violence
and even mass murders plague American schools. The IIRP believes that
the dramatic change in behavior among young people is largely the
result of the loss of connectedness and community in modern society.
Schools themselves have become larger, more impersonal institutions
and educators feel less connected to the families whose children they
teach.”
Piperato, D. F., & Roy, J. J. (2002, 8th-10th August). Paper presented at the "Dreaming of a New
Reality," the Third International Conference on Conferencing, Circles and
other Restorative Practices, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
If today’s trends continue,
education in the 21st century will be characterized by increasingly
fractured relationships and even more alienated students. Closed,
individualized, bureaucratic cultures typical of many schools are unable
to reverse these trends. Collaboration within the schoolhouse and beyond
is critical to meeting the individual needs of students. Just as
industry moved from mass production to mass customization, schools will
need to similarly customize the educational experiences of individuals
to re-engage them and to begin the restoration of relationships.
Thorsborne, M. (2000).[pdf] Paper presented at the Healthy School
Communities: APAPDC National Online Conference 2000.
The massacre of students at the
Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, and copycat shootings in
other US and Canadian schools have sent waves of alarm through school
communities across the globe. While tough gun laws limit accessibility
to the type of weapons used in those crimes here in Australia, school
violence is increasingly a source of anxiety. There is no argument
from this author that there is much to be done beyond the school gates
to counter this harmful behaviour, and at the earliest point of
intervention in the lives of our young people. Responding to such
incidents in schools, though, is always a challenge. School responses
to incidents of violence (including bullying), typically range from
police involvement, suspension and/or exclusion, detention, to parent
interviews, counselling and anger management programs. Community
conferencing, first introduced to Queensland schools in 1994, is an
extremely effective process for dealing with incidents of violence.
Wachtel, T. (1999).[html] Paper presented at the "Reshaping Australian
Institutions Conference: Restorative Justice and Civil Society, Australian
National University, Canberra.
We need a more useful way of looking at
school discipline and social discipline than the limited
punitive-permissive continuum—to punish or not to punish. We need to
look through a social discipline window comprised of both control and
support.
Wachtel, T., & McCold, P. (2001).
[html] In H. Strang & J. Braithwaite (Eds.), Restorative
justice and civil society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Punishment in response to crime and other
wrongdoing is the prevailing practice, not just in criminal justice
systems but throughout most modern societies. Punishment is usually
seen as the most appropriate response to crime and to wrongdoing in
schools, families and workplaces. Those who fail to punish naughty
children and offending youths and adults are often labelled as
“permissive.” This punitive-permissive continuum reflects the current
popular view, but offers a very confined perspective and limited
choice—to punish
Braithwaite, J. (2001).
[pdf] Oxford Review of
Education, 27(2), 239-252.
Restorative justice circles or conferences have
shown considerable promise in the criminal justice system as a more
decent and effective way of dealing with youthful law breaking than
punishment. The social movement for restorative justice has a
distinctive analysis of the crisis of community and the possibility of
community in late modernity. This paper raises the question of whether
this approach might fruitfully be applied to the holistic development
of the learning potential of the young and the whole range of problems
young people encounter—drug abuse, unemployment, homelessness,
suicide, among others— in the transition from school to work.
Morris, A. (2002). British Journal of Criminology, 42, 596-615.
Restorative justice has been
subject to a number of attacks, both empirically and philosophically. This
paper attempts to address some of these criticisms and suggests that they
stem in part from misunderstandings about what restorative justice seeks to
achieve and in part from demanding too much from restorative justice at this
stage in its development. Attempts to evaluate restorative justice are also
relatively recent. Critics, however, tend to either ignore the available
research findings or to present them negatively. Critics also fail to
contrast what restorative justice has achieved and may still achieve with
what conventional criminal justice systems have achieved. Drawing from
research, particularly from New Zealand, which has put restorative justice
principles into practice to a greater extent than other jurisdictions, this
review suggests that there are reasons to be relatively positive about the
re‐emergence of restorative justice.
O'Connell, M. (2002).
[pdf] Paper presented
at the Role of Schools in Crime Prevention, Melbourne.
Paper presented at the The Role of Schools in
Crime Prevention Conference convened by the Australian Institute of
Criminology in conjunction with the Department of Education,
Employment and Training, Victoria, and Crime Prevention Victoria and
held in Melbourne, 30 September – 1 October 2002
Pranis, K. (2000). Public Service Psychology, 25(2).
We live in fear of our
children. Any society that fears its children will not long thrive.
We have allowed enormous distance to develop between ourselves and the
children of others. We have not come to know them sufficiently and we
have not invested emotionally, materially and spiritually in their
well being. We have not taught them by example to understand the
interconnectedness of all things and the need to always understand the
impact of our actions on others. Violent juvenile crime - the image of
monsters parading as children has been used to justify countless
escalations in harsh measures after each new horror - only when it was
a six year old who pulled the trigger did we stop our punitive
response long enough to look at ourselves and ask, "How could this
be?"
Brookes, D & McDonough, I (2006). [pdf] Unpublished manuscript. (Thanks to
Marg Armstrong for this link.)
Over the past few years, many
practitioners in Scotland have come to recognise the importance of
distinguishing restorative justice or restorative practices from mediation.
Alles, N. (2002, 30th September-1st October). Paper presented at the
Role of Schools in Crime Prevention Conference, Melbourne.
Paper presented at the The Role of Schools in Crime Prevention Conference
convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology in conjunction with the
Department of Education, Employment and Training, Victoria, and Crime
Prevention Victoria and held in Melbourne, 30 September – 1 October 2002
Armstrong, M., Tobin, M., & Thorsborne, M. (2002, 30th September-1st
October). Paper presented at the Role of Schools in Crime Prevention
Conference, Melbourne.
Community Conferencing is a restorative justice
approach to the management of harmful behaviour. It offers a way to achieve
positive outcomes for students, their parents and caregivers and the school
community in the wake of the sort of serious incidents usually so challenging
for our schools. This approach offers an opportunity for all parties to
address unresolved feelings and questions about these incidents. It is also
thought to be a useful approach to address the issue of retention of at risk
students in our schools.
Braithwaite, V.
(2001). [pdf] In J.
Braithwaite & H. Strang (Eds.), Restorative justice: Philosophy to
practice. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
The present chapter shifts the
frame of analysis in two respects. First, the focus changes from what happens,
to what people think should happen when rules have been broken and others
harmed. Perceptions and expectations that individuals have of justice
practices is a topic that Daly touches upon in her argument for why
retributive and restorative practices should not be conceptualized as
oppositional forms of justice. Second, this chapter looks behind the practices
that individuals favour in particular situations, and seeks to identify broad
and widely held value systems that explain why certain justice practices
resonate more strongly with some constituencies than with others. In the
process, the age-old question of personal experiences versus social ideals as
shapers of our policy preferences is addressed.
Braithwaite,
V. (2003).[pdf] In B. Morrison (Ed.), From bullying to responsible
citizenship: A restorative approach to building Safe School communities:
unpublished manuscript held by the Australian Institute of Criminology.
When schools decide to
implement anti-bullying programs, they must decide on an approach that best
fits their underlying organizational philosophy. Some schools maintain a
hierarchical structure with strict codes of conduct and punishments associated
with violation of these codes. Other schools are organized around a set of
democratic principles in which codes of conduct are communicated, developed,
modified, and enforced through discussion and feedback among all members of
the school community.
Braithwaite, V., Ahmed, E., Morrison, B., & Reinhart, M. (2001,
September). Paper presented at the
Restorative Justice Conference, Leuven.
Restorative justice practices are being
regarded increasingly as attractive options for dealing with wrongdoing in
school communities. Traditional punishments of a social kind, such as
suspension or expulsion, are being sidelined as tools of last resort as
researchers and practitioners document the negative consequences of allowing
children “to be at a loose end” in the community (Cunningham & Henggeler,
2001; Hirschi, 1969; Jenkins, 1997), geographically and socially separated
from family and friends who are enmeshed in education and employment networks
for most of their day. Suspension and expulsion leave children who are already
vulnerable even more exposed than they were previously to being trapped within
subcultures that operate at the fringe of, if not outside the law.
Henderson, C. (2002, 30th September-1st October). Paper presented at the Role of Schools in Crime
Prevention, Melbourne.
Teachers and young people are facing
significant challenges in the new millennium. Many young people are resistant
to schooling which they see as increasingly disconnected from their lives
given rapidly changing political, economic, social and cultural circumstances
including new communication technologies, changing employment patterns, a
growing gap between rich and poor, and increasing local diversity and global
interconnectedness. The multiplicity of lifeworlds and overlapping subcultures
that young people are part of are alien to many teachers. The inability of
traditional schooling to engage with such factors in meaningful ways can be
seen in resistant behaviour of students and frustration on the part of
teachers.
Circles are a tradition from communities of the past
where people joined in a circle to understand one another, share perspectives,
solve problems or possibly make peace. Even today, healthy families will find
time to switch off the TV and join together with a hot drink to talk honestly
about how things are. Today Circles are being used in a vast variety of
contexts. In schools they are building trust and understanding within tense
class situations, in police contexts internationally they are being used
increasingly to resolve deeply entrenched difficulties between gangs and
community groups, lowering murder rates. In neighbourhoods Circles are being
used to rebuild the structure of ‘community’, helping isolated people to feel
supported and appreciated. In social support agencies, Circles have been used
for years to engage families and professionals together in mutually beneficial
environments.
Marshall, P., Shaw, G., & Freeman, E. (2002, 8th-10th August). Paper presented at the
"Dreaming of a New Reality," the Third International Conference on
Conferencing, Circles and other Restorative Practices, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
This paper explores the central
role played by schools in introducing students to a positive experience of
justice and community. Issues in the current educational context that impact
on the introduction of restorative practices into schools are discussed. A
pilot project to assess the value of the process of Community Conferencing
into schools within the State of Victoria, Australia is placed within the
context of educational developments in Victoria and the development of
restorative processes in education in Australia. Emerging themes from the
pilot project are presented. The paper includes a framework for
conceptualising the place of restorative justice within the broader efforts of
schools to develop safe and supportive environments that promote student
wellbeing and connectedness to school. The need for a multi-level response
from systemic and school levels to meet the challenge of developing
sustainability in restorative practice in education is highlighted.
Morrison, B. (2001, 5th-7th March) Paper presented at the International
Conference on Violence in Schools and Public Policies, Palais de l'UNESCO,
Paris.
Addressing school violence has no
easy answers. There have been journeys down many different avenues. We have
swung between the libertarian ideal of rehabilitation for the damaged lives of
perpetrators of violence and the more conservative punitive just deserts
approach. Broadly speaking, the former values compassion, while the latter
values accountability for individuals' actions. Both approaches aim to (1)
achieve behavioural change for the individual; (2) keep our schools and
communities safe. The evidence is mixed as to what works best. Is it possible
to incorporate both compassion and accountability in the sanctions we impose
when dealing with school violence? Advocates of restorative justice answer a
tentative yes to this question.
Morrison, B. (2001).
[pdf] In Restorative justice and civil society.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Can our school system, through
the adoption of restorative justice practices, play a role in the maintenance
of a civil society? This chapter argues that it does hold an important role as
a developmental institution in this capacity. An understanding of a civil
society is advanced that highlights the reciprocal interplay between social
capital and responsible citizenship. These arguments are substantiated through
sociological and psychological theories that uphold the importance of social
relationships to the regulation of social justice.
Morrison, B. (2002). Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 219.
Bullying at school causes enormous stress for many children and their
families, and has long-term effects. School bullying has been identified as a
risk factor associated with antisocial and criminal behaviour. Bullies are
more likely to drop out of school and to engage in delinquent and criminal
behaviour. The victims are more likely to have higher levels of stress,
anxiety, depression and illness, and an increased tendency to suicide. This
paper reports on a restorative justice program that was run in a primary
school in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), but whose lessons have wider
application.
Morrison, B.
(2002). [Word Doc] Unpublished. Centre for Restorative Justice, ANU.
Bullying, violence and alienation are with us, and they each contribute to the
cycle of violence that is boiling over in our schools and communities. The
pattern is striking deep. Even in places where we would least expect it.
Once a student’s feeling of alienation strikes deep enough the consequences
are devastating. In the worst of cases it goes one of two ways: suicide or
revenge.
Morrison, B. (2003).Journal of Educational Administration, 41(6), 689-704.
We leave the realm of justice to
our courts, where investment and growth are soaring. Yet justice is a part of
our everyday lives, and hence it also belongs in our homes and our schools,
where investment and growth are in decline. Schools, as our primary
developmental institutions, need to invest in justice. The implementation of
restorative justice and responsive regulation in schools offer an opportunity
for schools to invest in justice, not a simple ‘one-off’ opportunity, but one
that embraces the ongoing and emerging complexities of school life
Daly, K. (1999, 17th-21st November).
[pdf] Paper presented at the American Society of
Criminology Annual Meeting, Toronto, Canada.
Can "punishment" be part of a process and
outcome termed "restorative"? For the past several years, I've been
challenging colleagues to rethink the oppositional contrast they use in
comparing retributive and restorative justice (Daly 1998, 1999a, 1999b). The
source of my critique comes from what I have observed in family or
diversionary conferences in Australia; what victims, offenders, and their
supporters say; and the many post-conference debriefings I've had with
coordinators and other researchers.
Daly, K. (1999, 28th-30th September).
[pdf] Paper presented at the Australia and New Zealand
Society of Criminology Annual Conference, Perth.
What is
the place of "punishment" in a process and outcome termed "restorative"? For the past
several years, I've been challenging colleagues to rethink the oppositional
contrast they use in comparing retributive and restorative justice (Daly 1998,
1999a, 1999b). The source of my critique comes from what I have observed in
family or diversionary
conferences in Australia;1
what victims, offenders,
and their supporters say; and the many post-conference debriefings I've had
with coordinators and other researchers.
Strang, H. (1999, 22nd-25th June).
[Word Doc] Paper presented at the International
Forum on Initiatives for Safe Schools: School Violence Prevention and Juvenile
Protection-What Works?, Soeul, Korea.
‘Youth is
disintegrating. The youngsters of the land have a disrespect for their elders
and a contempt for authority in ever form. Vandalism is rife, and crime of
all kinds is rampant among our young people. The nation is in peril’
(quotation from an Egyptian priest 4000 years ago, quoted in Madison 1970).
Strang, H. (2001).
Canberra: Criminology Research Council.
Although a variety of diversionary programs,
including cautioning, Drug Courts and some initiatives in the Family court may
be broadly labelled ‘restorative’, this paper restricts its coverage to
programs involving meetings of victims, offenders and communities to discuss
and resolve an offence. It deals primarily with developments in the use of
these programs in ‘justice’, but there will also be reference to the state of
play with programs in these other settings.
Thorsborne, M & Blood, P.
(2006). Paper delivered at the International Institute of Restorative
Practices "The Next Step: Developing Restorative Communities, Part 2"
Conference. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, October 2006.
This paper is designed to assist change agents
at a District and Regional support level; system decision makers; and external
consultants apply change management theory in the educational context to
assist with the implementation of restorative practices. An understanding of
effective change management theories is essential to better understand the
scope of the change process and to more effectively manage implementation
planning.
Thorsborne, M. & Blood, P.
(2005). Paper delivered at the Sixth International Conference on
Conferencing, Circles and other Restorative Practices: "Building a Global
Alliance for Restorative practices and Family Empowerment." Sydney, Australia.
March, 2005.
This paper seeks to broaden the perspectives of
senior and middle management and restorative practitioners around what
restorative practice in schools can look like; and to present some practical
guidelines which represent a strategic approach to the implementation of
restorative practices, so that they “stick” – that is, become sustainable.
Barton, C. (1999). [pdf]Journal
of Professional Ethics. 1999. Vol. 7(3&4) pp.111 – 135.
Contrary to the implied suggestion in many
restorative justice critiques of the status quo, the chief strength of
restorative justice interventions does not lie in their rejection of punitiveness and retribution, but the
empowerment of communities of care who are the most likely to respond
effectively to both the causes and the consequences of criminal wrongdoing.
Thus, it is the empowerment of affected stakeholders on both sides that is the
crucial feature of restorative justice, and the feature whose absence causes
both conventional and restorative justice to fail.
Barton, C. (2000). [pdf] The Australian Journal of Professional
and Applied Ethics, vol. 2, no. 2, 2000.
According to traditional wisdom, determining
the just and fair (or the best and most appropriate) response to a criminal
act is best left to trained and specialised criminal justice professionals.
Restorative justice philosophy holds the opposite view, that such decisions
are best made by the principal parties (victim and offender) themselves, and
preferably in dialogue with one another in the presence of their respective
communities of care and support (typically family and friends). Thus, the
fundamental difference between conventional and restorative justice can be most usefully articulated by
reference to this one concept: empowerment. That is,
empowerment of the key stakeholders in the
responses of the criminal justice system to wrongful and criminal acts so that the matter is
resolved in ways that are meaningful and right for them.
Barton, C. (2000). [pdf] Australian
Journal of Professional and Applied Ethics, vol. 2, no. 1, July 2000:
pp.41 – 53.
The growing prominence of restorative
justice interventions necessitates a
reconceptualization of criminal justice in
terms of a new paradigm. The most plausible candidate for this is an empowerment paradigm of
justice. However, an overarching theory of criminal
justice in these terms needs to be complemented
by more fine-grained theoretical explanations of how and why conventional and
alternative criminal justice interventions work the way they do. The paper
discusses four such explanations: Reversal of moral disengagement; Social and
moral development; Emotional and moral psychological healing; Reintegrative
shaming.
Cavanagh, T. (2000). Retrieved 9th September, 2003,
from http://www.loyno.edu/twomey/blueprint/blueprint-april2000.htm
Cavanagh explores the relationship
between restorative justice and the common good. His argument is that true
morality in society requires a focus on the common good, not merely on
tolerance. Only pursuit of the common good makes it possible to address moral
issues such as economic deprivation, unemployment, and drug/alcohol related
violence. Peace is at the center of the common good, and forgiveness and
reconciliation are at the root of peace. The values and practices of
restorative justice (taking responsibility, forgiveness, reconciliation) are
means to achieve peace through the healing of relationships in communities.
Claassen, R. (1993).Conciliation Quarterly
Newsletter, 12(2).
Believe it or not, part of the joy of working with the children in my
classroom is working together with them at issues of discipline. Just about
every situation that is a conflict of some sort can be used as a teachable
moment in our life together.
Claassen, R. (2001). VORP
Newsletter oif the Central Valley.
I have hope that some day restorative justice
will be what most people think of when they think of justice. Maybe some day
we will have to explain to our children and grandchildren that there was a
time when most people thought that justice was retributive justice.
Claassen, R. (2002).
Retrieved 6th November,
2003,
When I use the word "peace" in
this article I am thinking of the Hebrew word Shalom. Peace-shalom means much
more than the absnece of war. It it the kind of peace that exists because
there are "right relationships," not because each is afraid to strike first
because of what the other might be able to do to harm them.
Claassen, R. (2003).
Retrieved 6th November, 2003, from http://www.fresno.edu/pacs/docs/model.shtml
Peace-shalom, Love-agape,
Forgiveness, Confession, Atonement, Repentance and Trust are key words in the
Peacemaking Model. They are all words that are used in the faith and secular
worlds and with a variety of meanings. What I will do in this article is to
use stories and teachings from my faith tradition, to help clarify my
understanding of each.
Ahmed, E. (2002, 7-12th July). [pdf] Paper presented at the XXV
International Congress of Applied Psychology on 'Making Life Better for All: A
Challenge for Applied Psychology' organised by the Singapore Psychological
Society and the National University of Singapore, Singapore.
This study focuses on the prediction of self-initiated bullying from family,
school, personality, and shame management variables. Reintegrative shaming
theory provided a theoretical framework for data gathered from students
and their parents.
To test the importance of shame management in relation to bullying, the MOSS-SASD
instrument (Management of Shame State–Shame Acknowledgment and Shame
Displacement) was developed. Bullying was related to a child’s unacknowledged
shame and its displacement to other-directed blame and anger. The results of
path analysis indicated that shame management partially mediated the effects
of family, school, and personality variables on bullying. The implications of
these findings for creating a safer school environment are discussed.
New Zealand Catholic Bishop's Conference. (1995) A Pastoral
Letter to the Catholic People of New Zealand.
It
is time to re-e
valuate
what it is we need for true justice to flow throughout this land. We are
called by God to be the stewards of creation, to protect the land and enhance
the dignity of all its people. Crime traditionally escalates most where social
injustice prevails. There remains much social injustice in New Zealand. In
particular, there is a desperate need to provide affordable housing, adequate
benefits, good health care and more employment. Deprivation in these areas
forms a type of structural violence against the poor who are often left
inadequately fed and in poor health, with little by way of shelter, money or
hope. These are all areas the government should tackle as a priority.
Restorative justice has been
emerging within the justice systems of a number of countries in the last
decade. The key element of restorative justice, he asserts, is the pursuit of
justice practices that, as far as possible, rebuild relationships broken by
crime rather than damage them further. On this basis, Sarre explores religious
roots or connections of restorative justice in historical terms. Additionally
he develops some of the possibilities for churches in seeking to enhance
restorative justice principles.
George, G (2011).
[pdf] Paper presented at 5th Restorative Justice
Aotearoa National and 3rd Restorative Practices International Conferences, 23
– 27 November 2011, Wellington, NZ.
In this paper, some newer research in psychology is
examined for the potential contribution it could make to our understandings in
restorative practices. The paper begins with a very brief scan of the existing
Affect Theory
and the Compass of
Shame, to set the context before exploring the new research and then
attempting to tie together the newer insights with theexisting thinking. Potential implications of this
newly-integrated work for how school communities might best encourage the
proper moral development of their students are also briefly explored.
The purpose of this primer is
to introduce the reader to the work of Silvan S. Tomkins, who dedicated his
life to developing a new, more comprehensive understanding of the biological
and evolutionary roots of human motivation in order to establish a more
accurate picture of personality, something he called Human Being Theory. While
Tomkins’s formal educational background included the study of playwriting,
philosophy, and psychology, it is clear from reading the four volumes of his
magnum opus Affect Imagery Consciousness that he was also well versed in many
other areas including anatomy, Darwinian evolution, history, literature,
religion, and artificial intelligence, all of which he pursued to answer the
question "What do human beings really want?"
Emotion is the motivational
cornerstone of all human endeavors. The continually expanding, international
literature related to the practice of Restorative Justice presents
practitioners with a dizzying array of models regarding emotion.
Nathanson, D. L. (1997). In J. A. Winer (Ed.), The
Annual of Psychoanalysis (Vol. 25). Chicago: Chicago Institute for
Psychoanalysis.
The untimely death of Michael
Franz Basch brings into sharp focus the number, depth, and importance of his
contributions. From his early efforts to explain Kohut’s (1971) observation
that the mothering caregiver is able to tune in on the world of the wordless
infant by experiencing something within herself, we have developed a science
of empathy that assists the repair of the most intimate human relationships
and the connection to society of its most troubled and least intimate members.
Nathanson, D. L. (2003).
[pdf] Washington,
DC: Report to the Academic Advisory Council of the National Campaign Against
Youth Violence.
Very briefly, I will outline the changes that
have taken place in our understanding of emotion over the past 25 or more
years, but that have not yet entered into consideration by the social sciences
most of you represent. Primary neurophysiological and neuropsychological
research by Tomkins, Panksepp, Edelman, LeDoux, Ekman, Stern, and many others
have forced recognition of the fact that underlying the complex and highly
variable emotions we as adults experience more or less constantly is a rather
small and fixed set of physiological mechanisms.
Drawing on the affect and script paradigm of Silvan S. Tomkins, this
two-part workshop will show how restorative practices work. Participants will
learn to identify the nine innate affects, biological programs triggered by
patterns of neural stimulation, and learn how they motivate all of us. The
affects combine with life experience to form scripts, powerful emotional
rules, of which we are usually unaware. We will examine the language of
emotion, personality development, empathy, intimacy, and some of the scripts
by which people manage affects such as shame. Tomkins’s blueprint for
emotional health will explain why restorative practices work.
van Stokkom, B. (2002). Theoretical Criminology, 6(3),
339-360.
This article deals with the
emotional dynamics of restorative conferences, focusing on the functions of
shame, as enunciated in the theories of Moore, Scheff and Retzinger.
According to these researchers, the restorative justice conferences aim to
redirect aggressive emotions and elicit shame and other hurt-revealing
emotions that can lead to empathy. These approaches are confronted with the
views of the guilt-theorists Tangney and Baumeister who argue that guilt is
related to empathy and reparation, whereas shame tends to provoke avoidance
or rejection of responsibility. The view that guilt is the more moral
emotion appears to turn Braithwaite’s theory of reintegrative shaming upside
down. In accordance with recent research results of the Braithwaite group,
it is concluded that guilt is an important aspect of the restorative
process. But guilt has limited affect resonance possibilities, misses the
other-regarding aspects of remorse and does not seem to incite the offender
to reconsider his or her identity. In conclusion, it is argued that (reintegrative)
‘shaming’ is a dubious concept.
Restorative justice interventions, which focus
upon repairing the harm caused by an offence, are consistent with the approach
advocated by reintegrative shaming theory (Braithwaite, 1989; Braithwaite &
Braithwaite, 2001). However, some have argued that remorse and empathy play a
more important role in restoration, and that a focus upon disapproval and the
emotion of shame may be misguided. This article analyses theoretical
distinctions between shame and guilt before discussing their role in
restorative interventions. It is argued that emotions like empathy, remorse
and guilt will spill over into feelings of shame, and that it is the
resolution of these emotions that is critical for successful justice
interventions.
Haidt, J (2003), in Flourishing: Positive Psychology and
the Life Well-Lived, American Psychological Society, Washington DC.
The power of the positive moral
emotions to uplift and transform people has long been known, but not by
psychologists. In 1771, Thomas Jefferson's friend Robert Skipwith wrote to him
asking for advice on what books to buy for his library, and for his own
education. Jefferson sent back a long list of titles in history, philosophy,
and natural science. But in addition to these obviously educational works,
Jefferson advised the inclusion of some works of fiction.
Haidt, J (2003), in
Handbook of Affective Sciences, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
This chapter includes a census of the moral emotions and a discussion of
the ways in which moral emotions and moral reasoning work together in the
creation of human morality.
George, G (2011).
[pdf] Paper presented at 5th Restorative Justice
Aotearoa National and 3rd Restorative Practices International Conferences, 23
– 27 November 2011, Wellington, NZ.
In this paper, some newer
research in psychology is examined for the potential contribution it could
make to our understandings in restorative practices. The paper begins with a
very brief scan of the existing Affect Theory and the Compass of Shame, to set
the context before exploring the new research and then attempting to tie
together the newer insights with the
existing thinking. Potential implications of this
newly-integrated work for how school communities might best encourage the
proper moral development of their students are also briefly explored.
Tangney, JP (2001), in Constructive Destructive
Behavior Implications for Family School Society, American Psychological
Society.
Discusses for whom, under what
conditions, and in what form do the negative moral emotions of shame and guilt
serve constructive as opposed to destructive functions. This chapter
summarizes research indicating that shame and guilt are distinct affective
experiences with very different implications for adjustment at both the
individual and interpersonal level. Taken together, the author's research
indicates that feelings of shame often give rise to a range of potentially
destructive motivations, defenses, interpersonal behaviors, and psychological
symptoms. In contrast, guilt appears to be the "quintessential" moral emotion
serving numerous constructive, "relationship-enhancing functions" without many
of the burdens and costs inherent in feelings of shame. It is stated that in a
very real sense, negatively balanced "moral" emotions, such as shame and
guilt, highlight the best and worst sides of human emotional experience.
Tangney, JP, Steuwig, J & Mashek, DJ (2007),
Annual Review of Psychology, pp. 58:
345-372.
Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus,
influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior. This chapter
reviews current theory and research on moral emotions. We first focus on a
triad of negatively valenced “selfconscious” emotions—shame, guilt, and
embarrassment. As in previous decades, much research remains focused on shame
and guilt. We review current thinking on the distinction between shame and
guilt, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of these two moral
emotions. Several new areas of research are highlighted: research on the
domain-specific phenomenon of body shame, styles of coping with shame,
psychobiological aspects of shame, the link between childhood abuse and later
proneness to shame, and the phenomena of vicarious or “collective” experiences
of shame and guilt. In recent years, the concept of moral emotions has been
expanded to include several positive emotions—elevation, gratitude, and the
sometimes morally relevant experience of pride. Finally, we discuss briefly a
morally relevant emotional process—other-oriented empathy.
Tangney, JP & Tracy, J (2011),
in Handbook of Self and Identity, Guilford
Press, New York.
All human emotions are, in a loose sense, “self-relevant.” Emotions arise
when something self-relevant happens or is about to happen. In the language of
appraisal theory (Lazarus, 1966), we experience emotions when we judge that
events have positive or negative significance for our wellbeing. The specific
type of emotional response is shaped both by such primary appraisals of
events’ positive vs. negative implications for the individual, and by
secondary appraisals (e.g., of one’s ability to cope with the events). But all
emotions arise from events that in some way have relevance for oneself. There
is, however, a special class of human emotions that are even more immediately
self-relevant. This chapter focuses on these “self-conscious” emotions, which
directly involve self- reflection and self-evaluation.
Self-conscious emotions (e.g., shame, pride) are fundamentally important to a
wide range of psychological processes, yet they have received relatively
little attention compared to other, more “basic” emotions (e.g., sadness,
joy). This article outlines the unique features that distinguish
self-conscious from basic emotions and then explains why generally accepted
models of basic emotions do not adequately capture the self-conscious emotion
process. The authors present a new model of self-conscious emotions, specify a
set of predictions derived from the model, and apply the model to narcissistic
self-esteem regulation. Finally, the authors discuss the model’s broader
implications for future research on self and emotion.
Weissbourd, R (2003), Educational Leadership, pp. Vol 60, No 6.
Schools can
best support students' moral development by helping teachers manage
the stresses of their profession and by increasing teachers' capacity
for reflection and empathy.
Battistich, V & Hom, A 1997, American Journal of
Public Health, p. Vol 87 No 12.
There has been relatively little
research on the contributions of school context to developmental
outcomes. This study examined relationships between students' sense of
the school as a community and their involvement in problem behaviors.
The major finding was that, with several relevant student- and
school-level characteristics controlled, schools with higher average
sense-of-community scores had significantly lower average student drug
use and delinquency. Caution is warranted in inferring causality,
however, owing to the cross-sectional design. The findings suggest
that school context may moderate relationships between individual risk
and protective factors and developmental outcomes, and that schools
that are experienced as communities may enhance students' resiliency.
Benninga, JS, Berkowitz, MW, Kuehn, P & Smith, K
(2006),
viewed 3 November 2011.
Though there has been increasing interest in
character education among policy makers and education professionals
many schools hesitate to do anything that might detract from their
focus on increasing academic performance. The authors present evidence
indicating that this may be misguided.
In this paper, an argument will be advanced
for the wedding of two disciplines: prevention science and character
education. Both are relatively well-developed disciplines and arguing
for the legitimacy of either one is not necessary. Rather it is the
relation between them that requires justification. That is precisely
what I will attempt to achieve here. First, I will argue that the
focus of prevention science, especially as it relates to preventing
undesirable child and adolescent behaviors, should be broad rather
than narrow. In particular, I will focus predominantly on school-based
efforts. Most of this argument, however, would also apply to community
or family-based efforts. Second, I will argue for an overlap between
what is commonly understood as character education and what is
commonly understood as prevention. Lastly, I will offer evidence that
will demonstrate the preventive value of character education.
Berkowitz, MW & Bier, MC (2005),
viewed 3 November 2011.
The following report, What Works in Character
Education (WWCE) represents an effort to uncover and synthesize
existing scientific research on the effects of K-12 character
education. It is made up of a brief overview of the project, a
description of the main findings, a set of guidelines on effective
character education practice, and some brief cautionary remarks
regarding how to interpret these findings. It is intended to provide
practical advice for educators derived from a review of the research.
Subsequent reports will more fully chronicle the scientific journey
taken to reach these conclusions.
Although moral
development of children has long been ascribed predominantly to the
effects of parenting, there has been little systematic examination of
the specific nature of this relation. In this paper, we identify four
foundational components of children’s moral development (social
orientation, self-control, compliance, self-esteem) and four central
aspects of moral functioning (empathy, conscience, moral reasoning,
altruism). The parenting roots of each of these eight psychological
characteristics are examined, and five core parenting processes
(induction, nurturance, demandingness, modelling, democratic family
process) that are related empirically to the development of these
eight child characteristics are identified and discussed. Finally, we
consider the implications of our analysis for teaching parents to
influence positively their children’s moral development.
Eisenberg, N, Fabes, RA & Spinrad, TL (2006),
in Handbook of Child Psychology,
Volume 3: Social, Emotional and Personality Development 5th Edition,
Wiley, New York.
Prosocial behavior - voluntary behavior
intended to benefit another - is of obvious importance to the quality
of interactions between individuals and among groups. However,
scientists did not devote much attention to prosocial development
prior to 1970, perhaps because the consequences of aggression,
criminality, and immorality had greater salience for society.
Feshbach, ND (1975), Counselling
Psychology, vol 5, pp. 25-30.
The process of empathy, which
implies a shared interpersonal experience, is undoubtedly implicated
in a number of important social behaviours, such as altruism,
generosity, the regulation of aggression and social cognition.
Folsom, C (2005),
Issues in Teacher Education, pp. Vol 14, No 2, 75-94.
This
article explores the theoretical foundations and practical application
of Teaching for Intellectual and Emotional Learning (TIEL
®),
a pedagogical model that codifies a powerful way of thinking about the
intellectual and social-emotional processes that underlie teaching and
learning.
McGrath, H & Noble, T (2007),
Paper presented at 3rd
Annual NCAB Conference ‘Promoting Positive Relationships for Safer
School Communities’, National Coalition against Bullying.
Ames, C (1992), Journal of Educational
Psychology, pp. Vol 84, No 3, 261-271.
This article examines the
classroom learning environment in relation to achievement goal theory
of motivation. Classroom structures are described in terms of how they
make different types of achievement goals salient and as a consequence
elicit qualitatively different patterns of motivation. Task,
evaluation and recognition, and authority dimensions of classrooms are
presented as examples of structures that can influence children's
orientation toward different achievement goals. Central to the thesis
of this article is a perspective that argues for an identification of
classroom structures that can contribute to a mastery orientation, a
systematic analysis of these structures, and a determination of how
these structures relate to each other. The ways in which interventions
must address the independency among these structures are discussed in
terms of how they influence student motivation.
Ames, C & Archer, J (1988), Journal of Educational Psychology, pp. Vol 80,
No 3, pp260-267.
We studied how specific motivational processes are
related to the salience of mastery and performance goals in actual
classroom settings. One hundred seventy-six students attending a
junior high/high school for academically advanced students were
randomly selected from one of their classes and responded to a
questionnaire on their perceptions of the classroom goal orientation,
use of effective learning strategies, task choices, attitudes, and
causal attributions. Students who perceived an emphasis on mastery
goals in the classroom reported using more effective strategies,
preferred challenging tasks, had a more positive attitude toward the
class, and had a stronger belief that success follows from one's
effort. Students who perceived performance goals as salient tended to
focus on their ability, evaluating their ability negatively and
attributing failure to lack of ability. The pattern and strength of
the findings suggest that the classroom goal orientation may
facilitate the maintenance of adaptive motivation patterns when
mastery goals are salient and are adopted by students.
Anderman, EM, Eccles, JS, Yoon, KS, Roeser, R,
Wigfield, A & Blumenfeld, P (2001), Contemporary Educational Psychology, pp. 26,
pp76-95.
Changes in students’ achievement values in
mathematics and reading were examined in a sample of children and
early adolescents. Hierarchical linear modeling techniques were used
to account for both classroom- and student-level effects. At the
student level, positive changes in students’ achievement values were
associated positively with self-concept of ability and the previous
year’s achievement values in both reading and math. Measures of
teachers’ mastery- and performance-oriented instructional practices
were included in the full HLM model. Students experienced decrements
in achievement values, after controlling for other student and
classroom level variables, in classrooms where performance-oriented
instructional practices were used. In the full model, self-concept of
ability was related positively to increases in achievement values,
whereas gender was unrelated to changes in achievement values.
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